Earth (or the Earth) is the third planet A planet is a celestial body orbiting a star or stellar remnant that is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity, is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.[a] from the Sun The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It has a diameter of about 1,392,000 kilometers , about 109 times that of Earth, and its mass (about 2 × 1030 kilograms, 330,000 times that of Earth) accounts for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System. About three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen, while the rest is, and the densest and fifth-largest of the eight planets in the Solar System The Solar System[a] consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by gravity, all of which were formed from the collapse of a giant molecular cloud approximately 4.6 billion years ago. Of the many objects that orbit the Sun, most of the mass is contained within eight relatively solitary planets[e] whose orbits are almost circular and. It is also the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial planets A terrestrial planet, telluric planet or rocky planet is a planet that is primarily composed of silicate rocks. Within the solar system, the terrestrial planets are the inner planets closest to the Sun. The terms are derived from Latin words for Earth , and an alternative definition would be that these are planets which are, in some notable. It is sometimes referred to as the World World is a common name for the sum of human civilization, specifically human experience, history, or the human condition in general, worldwide, i.e. anywhere on Earth, the Blue Planet,^{[note 6]} or by its Latin name, Terra.^{[note 7]}

^{[note 5]}

Home to millions of species In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are often used, such as based on similarity of DNA or^[16] including humans Humans are a species of animal known taxonomically as Homo sapiens , and are the only extant member of the Homo genus of bipedal primates in Hominidae, the great ape family. However, in some cases "human" is used to refer to any member of the genus Homo, Earth is currently the only place in the universe The Universe is commonly defined as the totality of everything that exists, including all physical matter and energy, the planets, stars, galaxies, and the contents of intergalactic space, although this usage may differ with the context . The term Universe may be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting such concepts as the cosmos, where life Life is a characteristic that distinguishes objects that have signaling and self-sustaining processes (biology) from those that do not, either because such functions have ceased (death), or else because they lack such functions and are classified as inanimate is known to exist. The planet formed 4.54 billion years The age of the Earth is around 4.54 billion years . This age has been determined by radiometric age dating of meteorite material and is consistent with the ages of the oldest-known terrestrial and lunar samples. The Sun, in comparison, is about 4.57 billion years old, about 30 million years older ago,^[17] and life appeared In natural science, abiogenesis or biopoesis is the study of how life on Earth could have arisen from inanimate matter. It should not be confused with evolution, which is the study of how groups of already living things change over time, or with cosmogony, which covers how the universe might have arisen. Most amino acids, often called "the on its surface within a billion years. Since then, Earth's biosphere The biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems. It can also be called the zone of life on Earth. From the broadest biophysiological point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. The has significantly altered the atmosphere The atmosphere of Earth is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth that is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night. Dry air contains roughly (by volume) 78% nitrogen, 21% and other abiotic In biology, abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical factors in the environment. Abiotic phenomena underlie all of biology. Abiotic factors, while generally downplayed, can have enormous impact. Abiotic components are aspects of geodiversity conditions on the planet, enabling the proliferation of aerobic organisms A good example would be the oxidation of glucose in aerobic respiration as well as the formation of the ozone layer The ozone layer is a layer in Earth's atmosphere which contains relatively high concentrations of ozone . This layer absorbs 97–99% of the sun's high frequency ultraviolet light, which is potentially damaging to life on earth. Over 90% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is present here. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the which, together with Earth's magnetic field Earth's magnetic field is approximately a magnetic dipole, with the magnetic field S pole near the Earth's geographic north pole (see Magnetic North Pole) and the other magnetic field N pole near the Earth's geographic south pole (see Magnetic South Pole). The cause of the field can be explained by dynamo theory. Magnetic fields extend infinitely,, blocks harmful solar radiation Sunlight, in the broad sense, is the total frequency spectrum of electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun. On Earth, sunlight is filtered through the Earth's atmosphere, and solar radiation is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon, permitting life on land.^[18] The physical properties of the Earth Geophysics, a major discipline of the Earth sciences and a sub discipline of physics, is the study of the whole Earth by the quantitative observation of its physical properties. Geophysical data are used in academics to observe tectonic plate motions, study the internal structure of the Earth, supplement data provided by geologic maps, and to non-, as well as its geological Geology is the science and study of the physical matter and energy that constitute the Earth. The field of geology encompasses the study of the composition, structure, properties, and history of the planet's physical material, the processes by which it is formed, moved, and changed, the history of life on Earth, and human interactions with the history and orbit, have allowed life to persist during this period. Without intervention, the planet could be expected to continue supporting life for between 0.5^[19] and 2.3 billion^[20] years, after which the rising luminosity and expansion of the Sun The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It has a diameter of about 1,392,000 kilometers , about 109 times that of Earth, and its mass (about 2 × 1030 kilograms, 330,000 times that of Earth) accounts for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System. About three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen, while the rest is—as a result of the gradual but inexorable depletion of its hydrogen Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. With an average atomic weight of 1.00794 u (1.007825 u for Hydrogen-1), hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75 % of the Universe's elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly composed of hydrogen in its fuel—would eventually eliminate the planet's biosphere.^[21]

Earth's outer surface In geology, a crust is the outermost solid shell of a rocky planet or moon, which is chemically distinct from the underlying mantle. The crusts of Earth, our Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Io, and other planetary bodies have been generated largely by igneous processes, and these crusts are richer in incompatible elements than their respective mantles is divided into several rigid segments, or tectonic plates Plate tectonics is a scientific theory which describes the large scale motions of Earth's lithosphere. It is vital for the existence of life on earth because of the role that it plays in the global cycle that maintains the balance of carbon between the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.[citation needed] The theory, that gradually migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years The geologic time scale provides a system of chronologic measurement relating stratigraphy to time that is used by geologists, paleontologists and other earth scientists to describe the timing and relationships between events that have occurred during the history of the Earth. The table of geologic time spans presented here agrees with the dates. About 71% of the surface is covered with salt water oceans, the remainder consisting of continents A continent is one of several large landmasses on Earth. They are generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, with seven regions commonly regarded as continents – they are : Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia and islands which together have many lakes and other sources of water contributing to the hydrosphere A hydrosphere in physical geography describes the combined mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of a planet. Liquid water, necessary for all known life, is not known to exist on any other planet's surface.^{[note 8][note 9]} Earth's poles A geographical pole is either of the two points—the north pole and the south pole—on the surface of a rotating planet (or other rotating body) where the axis of rotation (or simply "axis") meets the surface of the body. The north geographic pole of a body lies 90 degrees north of the equator, while the south geographic pole lies 90 are mostly covered with solid ice (Antarctic ice sheet The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice packs of the Earth. It covers about 98% of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth. It covers an area of almost 14 million square km and contains 30 million cubic km of ice. That is, approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic) or sea ice Sea ice is largely formed from seawater that freezes. Because the oceans consist of salt water, this occurs below the freezing point of pure water, at about -1.8 °C (Arctic ice cap). The planet's interior The interior structure of the Earth, similar to the outer, is layered. These layers can be defined by either their chemical or their rheological properties. The Earth has an outer silicate solid crust, a highly viscous mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core. Scientific understanding of Earth's remains active, with a thick layer of relatively solid mantle The mantle is a part of a terrestrial planet or other rocky body large enough to have differentiated by density. The interior of the Earth, similar to the other terrestrial planets, is chemically divided into layers. The mantle is a highly viscous layer between the crust and the outer core. Earth's mantle is a rocky shell about 2,890 km thick that, a liquid outer core The outer core of the Earth is a liquid layer about 2,260 kilometers thick composed of iron and nickel which lies above the Earth's solid inner core and below its mantle. Its outer boundary lies 2,890 km beneath the Earth's surface. The transition between the inner core and outer core is located approximately 5,150 km beneath the Earth's surface that generates a magnetic field, and a solid iron inner core The inner core of the Earth, its innermost hottest part as detected by seismological studies, is a primarily solid sphere about 1,220 km in radius, only about 70% that of the Moon. It is believed to consist of an iron-nickel alloy, and may have a temperature similar to the Sun's surface.

Earth interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the Moon The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite[nb 4] and is the fifth largest satellite in the Solar System. It is the largest natural satellite in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, a quarter the diameter of Earth and 1/81 its mass, and is the second densest satellite after Io. It is in synchronous rotation with Earth, always. At present, Earth orbits the Sun once for every roughly 366.26 times it rotates about its axis. This is a sidereal year A sidereal year is the time taken by the Earth to orbit the Sun once with respect to the fixed stars. Hence it is also the time taken for the Sun to return to the same position with respect to the fixed stars after apparently travelling once around the ecliptic. It was equal to 365.256363004 days at noon 1 January 2000 . This is 20m24.5128s longer, which is equal to 365.26 solar days Solar time is time kept or measured by the sun; and its basic division, the day, has been recognized and used since the dawn of history. The immediately visible sign of the passage of time by the sun, and the basis of its measurement, is the sun's apparent motion along the daily course that it appears to trace out in the sky from east to west.^{[note 10]} The Earth's axis of rotation is tilted In astronomy, axial tilt is the angle between an object's rotational axis, and a line perpendicular to its orbital plane. It differs from inclination 23.4° away from the perpendicular In geometry, two lines or planes , are considered perpendicular (or orthogonal) to each other if they form congruent adjacent angles (a T-shape). The term may be used as a noun or adjective. Thus, referring to Figure 1, the line AB is the perpendicular to CD through the point B. Note that by definition, a line is infinitely long, and strictly to its orbital plane All of the planets, comets, and asteroids in the solar system are in orbit around the Sun. All of those orbits line up with each other making a kind of flat disk called the orbital plane. The orbital plane of an object orbiting another is the geometrical plane in which the orbit is embedded. Three non-colinear points in space suffice to define the,^[22] producing seasonal variations on the planet's surface with a period of one tropical year A tropical year , for general purposes, is the length of time that the Sun takes to return to the same position in the cycle of seasons, as seen from Earth; for example, the time from vernal equinox to vernal equinox, or from summer solstice to summer solstice. Since antiquity, astronomers have progressively refined the definition of the tropical (365.24 solar days). Earth's only known natural satellite A natural satellite or moon is a celestial body that orbits a planet or smaller body, which is called the primary. Technically, the term natural satellite could refer to a planet orbiting a star, or a dwarf galaxy orbiting a major galaxy, but it is normally synonymous with moon and used to identify non-artificial satellites of planets, dwarf, the Moon, which began orbiting it about 4.53 billion years ago, provides ocean tides Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth. The tides occur with a period of approximately 12 hours and 25 minutes, and with an amplitude that is influenced by the alignment of the sun and moon and the shape of the near-shore, stabilizes the axial tilt and gradually slows the planet's rotation. Between approximately 3.8 billion and 4.1 billion years ago, numerous asteroid Asteroids, sometimes called minor planets or planetoids, are small Solar System bodies in orbit around the Sun, especially in the inner Solar System; they are smaller than planets but larger than meteoroids. The term "asteroid" has historically been applied primarily to minor planets of the inner Solar System, as the outer Solar System impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment The Late Heavy Bombardment is a period of time approximately 4.1 to 3.8 billion years ago (Ga) during which a large number of impact craters are believed to have formed on the Moon, and by inference on Earth, Mercury, Venus, and Mars as well. The evidence for this event comes primarily from the dating of lunar samples, which indicates that most caused significant changes to the greater surface environment.

Both the mineral A mineral is a naturally occurring solid chemical substance that is formed through geological processes and that has a characteristic chemical composition, a highly ordered atomic structure, and specific physical properties. By comparison, a rock is an aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids and does not have a specific chemical composition resources of the planet, as well as the products of the biosphere, contribute resources that are used to support a global human population. These inhabitants are grouped into about 200 independent sovereign states A sovereign state is a political association with effective internal and external sovereignty over a geographic area and population which is not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. While in abstract terms a sovereign state can exist without being recognised by other sovereign states, unrecognised states will often find it hard to, which interact through diplomacy, travel, trade, and military action. Human cultures have developed many views of the planet, including personification as a deity, a belief in a flat Earth The Flat Earth model is a view that the Earth's shape is a flat plane or disk. Most pre-modern cultures have had conceptions of a flat Earth, including the Bronze Age and Iron Age civilizations of the Ancient Near East until the Hellenistic period, Ancient India until the Gupta period and China until the 17th century or in Earth as the center of the universe In astronomy, the geocentric model , is the theory, now superseded, that the Earth is the center of the universe and other objects go around it. Belief in this system was common in ancient Greece. It was embraced by both Aristotle (see Aristotelian physics) and Ptolemy, and most, but not all, Ancient Greek philosophers assumed that the Sun, Moon,, and a modern perspective of the world as an integrated environment The Gaia hypothesis, Gaia theory or Gaia principle is a controversial ecological hypothesis or theory proposing that the biosphere and the physical components of the Earth are closely integrated to form a complex interacting system that maintains the climatic and biogeochemical conditions on Earth in a preferred homeorhesis. Originally proposed by that requires stewardship.

Contents 1 Chronology 1.1 Evolution of life 1.2 Future 2 Composition and structure 2.1 Shape 2.2 Chemical composition 2.3 Internal structure 2.4 Heat 2.5 Tectonic plates 2.6 Surface 2.7 Hydrosphere 2.8 Atmosphere 2.8.1 Weather and climate 2.8.2 Upper atmosphere 2.9 Magnetic field 3 Orbit and rotation 3.1 Rotation 3.2 Orbit 3.3 Axial tilt and seasons 4 Moon 5 Habitability 5.1 Biosphere 5.2 Natural resources and land use 5.3 Natural and environmental hazards 5.4 Human geography 6 Cultural viewpoint 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links

Chronology

Main article: History of the Earth See also: Geological history of Earth

Scientists have been able to reconstruct detailed information about the planet's past. The earliest dated Solar System material is dated to 4.5672 ± 0.0006 billion years ago,^[23] and by 4.54 billion years ago (within an uncertainty of 1%)^[17] the Earth and the other planets in the Solar System had formed out of the solar nebula—a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun. This assembly of the Earth through accretion was thus largely completed within 10–20 million years.^[24] Initially molten, the outer layer of the planet Earth cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed shortly thereafter, 4.53 billion years ago.^[25]

The current consensus model^[26] for the formation of the Moon is the giant impact hypothesis, in which the Moon formed as a result of a Mars-sized object (sometimes called Theia) with about 10% of the Earth's mass^[27] impacting the Earth in a glancing blow.^[28] In this model, some of this object's mass would have merged with the Earth and a portion would have been ejected into space, but enough material would have been sent into orbit to form the Moon.

Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, augmented by ice and liquid water delivered by asteroids and the larger proto-planets, comets, and trans-Neptunian objects produced the oceans.^[29] The newly formed Sun was only 70% of its present luminosity, yet evidence shows that the early oceans remained liquid—a contradiction dubbed the faint young Sun paradox. A combination of greenhouse gases and higher levels of solar activity served to raise the Earth's surface temperature, preventing the oceans from freezing over.^[30] By 3.5 billion years ago, the Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind.^[31]

Two major models have been proposed for the rate of continental growth:^[32] steady growth to the present-day^[33] and rapid growth early in Earth history.^[34] Current research shows that the second option is most likely, with rapid initial growth of continental crust^[35] followed by a long-term steady continental area.^[36][37][38] On time scales lasting hundreds of millions of years, the surface continually reshaped as continents formed and broke up. The continents migrated across the surface, occasionally combining to form a supercontinent. Roughly 750 million years ago (Ma), one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, 600–540 Ma, then finally Pangaea, which broke apart 180 Ma.^[39]

Evolution of life

Main article: Evolutionary history of life

At present, Earth provides the only example of an environment that has given rise to the evolution of life.^[40] Highly energetic chemistry is believed to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed.^[41] The development of photosynthesis allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms; the resultant oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere and formed a layer of ozone (a form of molecular oxygen [O₃]) in the upper atmosphere. The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of complex cells called eukaryotes.^[42] True multicellular organisms formed as cells within colonies became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer, life colonized the surface of Earth.^[43]

Since the 1960s, it has been hypothesized that severe glacial action between 750 and 580 Ma, during the Neoproterozoic, covered much of the planet in a sheet of ice. This hypothesis has been termed "Snowball Earth", and is of particular interest because it preceded the Cambrian explosion, when multicellular life forms began to proliferate.^[44]

Following the Cambrian explosion, about 535 Ma, there have been five major mass extinctions.^[45] The most recent such event was 65 Ma, when an asteroid impact triggered the extinction of the (non-avian) dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but spared some small animals such as mammals, which then resembled shrews. Over the past 65 million years, mammalian life has diversified, and several million years ago, an African ape-like animal such as Orrorin tugenensis gained the ability to stand upright.^[46] This enabled tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain. The development of agriculture, and then civilization, allowed humans to influence the Earth in a short time span as no other life form had,^[47] affecting both the nature and quantity of other life forms.

The present pattern of ice ages began about 40 Ma and then intensified during the Pleistocene about 3 Ma. High-latitude regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating every 40–100,000 years. The last continental glaciation ended 10,000 years ago.^[48]

Future

Main article: Future of the Earth See also: Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth The life cycle of the Sun

The future of the planet is closely tied to that of the Sun. As a result of the steady accumulation of helium at the Sun's core, the star's total luminosity will slowly increase. The luminosity of the Sun will grow by 10% over the next 1.1 Gyr (1.1 billion years) and by 40% over the next 3.5 Gyr.^[49] Climate models indicate that the rise in radiation reaching the Earth is likely to have dire consequences, including the loss of the planet's oceans.^[50]

The Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the inorganic CO₂ cycle, reducing its concentration to levels lethally low for plants (10 ppm for C4 photosynthesis) in approximately 500 million^[19] to 900 million years. The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, so animal life will become extinct within several million more years.^[51] After another billion years all surface water will have disappeared^[21] and the mean global temperature will reach 70 °C^[51](158 °F). The Earth is expected to be effectively habitable for about another 500 million years from that point,^[19] although this may be extended up to 2.3 billion years if the nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere.^[52] Even if the Sun were eternal and stable, the continued internal cooling of the Earth would result in a loss of much of its CO₂ due to reduced volcanism,^[53] and 35% of the water in the oceans would descend to the mantle due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges.^[54]

The Sun, as part of its evolution, will become a red giant in about 5 Gyr. Models predict that the Sun will expand out to about 250 times its present radius, roughly 1 AU (150,000,000 km).^[49][55] Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, the Earth will move to an orbit 1.7 AU (250,000,000 km) from the Sun when the star reaches it maximum radius. The planet was therefore initially expected to escape envelopment by the expanded Sun's sparse outer atmosphere, though most, if not all, remaining life would have been destroyed by the Sun's increased luminosity (peaking at about 5000 times its present level).^[49] However, a more recent simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will decay due to tidal effects and drag, causing it to enter the red giant Sun's atmosphere and be vaporized.^[55]

Possible alternatives to this fate include the purposeful displacement of an asteroid from the Kuiper belt, which would repeatedly fly close enough to Earth as to enlarge its orbit, thereby preventing the overheating of its surface. The lifespan of the biosphere could thereby be extended by 5 billion years.^[56]

Composition and structure

Main article: Earth science Further information: Earth physical characteristics tables

Earth is a terrestrial planet, meaning that it is a rocky body, rather than a gas giant like Jupiter. It is the largest of the four solar terrestrial planets in size and mass. Of these four planets, Earth also has the highest density, the highest surface gravity, the strongest magnetic field, and fastest rotation.^[57] It also is the only terrestrial planet with active plate tectonics.^[58]

Shape

Main article: Figure of the Earth Size comparison of inner planets (left to right): Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars

The shape of the Earth is very close to that of an oblate spheroid, a sphere flattened along the axis from pole to pole such that there is a bulge around the equator.^[59] This bulge results from the rotation of the Earth, and causes the diameter at the equator to be 43 km larger than the pole to pole diameter.^[60] The average diameter of the reference spheroid is about 12,742 km, which is approximately 40,000 km/π, as the meter was originally defined as 1/10,000,000 of the distance from the equator to the North Pole through Paris, France.^[61]

Local topography deviates from this idealized spheroid, though on a global scale, these deviations are very small: Earth has a tolerance of about one part in about 584, or 0.17%, from the reference spheroid, which is less than the 0.22% tolerance allowed in billiard balls.^[62] The largest local deviations in the rocky surface of the Earth are Mount Everest (8848 m above local sea level) and the Mariana Trench (10,911 m below local sea level). Because of the equatorial bulge, the surface locations farthest from the center of the Earth are the summits of Mount Chimborazo in Ecuador and Huascarán in Peru.^[63][64][65]

Chemical composition of the crust^[66]

Compound	Formula	Composition
		Continental	Oceanic
silica	SiO2	60.2%	48.6%
alumina	Al2O3	15.2%	16.5%
lime	CaO	5.5%	12.3%
magnesia	MgO	3.1%	6.8%
iron(II) oxide	FeO	3.8%	6.2%
sodium oxide	Na2O	3.0%	2.6%
potassium oxide	K2O	2.8%	0.4%
iron(III) oxide	Fe2O3	2.5%	2.3%
water	H2O	1.4%	1.1%
carbon dioxide	CO2	1.2%	1.4%
titanium dioxide	TiO2	0.7%	1.4%
phosphorus pentoxide	P2O5	0.2%	0.3%
Total		99.6%	99.9%

Chemical composition

See also: Abundance of elements on Earth

The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98 × 10²⁴ kg. It is composed mostly of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminium (1.4%); with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to mass segregation, the core region is believed to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.^[67]

The geochemist F. W. Clarke calculated that a little more than 47% of the Earth's crust consists of oxygen. The more common rock constituents of the Earth's crust are nearly all oxides; chlorine, sulfur and fluorine are the only important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. The principal oxides are silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda. The silica functions principally as an acid, forming silicates, and all the commonest minerals of igneous rocks are of this nature. From a computation based on 1,672 analyses of all kinds of rocks, Clarke deduced that 99.22% were composed of 11 oxides (see the table at right). All the other constituents occur only in very small quantities.^[68]

Internal structure

Main article: Structure of the Earth

The interior of the Earth, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their chemical or physical (rheological) properties. The outer layer of the Earth is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust, which is underlain by a highly viscous solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovičić discontinuity, and the thickness of the crust varies: averaging 6 km under the oceans and 30–50 km on the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the upper mantle are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are comprised. Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at 410 and 660 kilometers below the surface, spanning a transition zone that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid outer core lies above a solid inner core.^[69] The inner core may rotate at a slightly higher angular velocity than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year.^[70]

Geologic layers of the Earth^[71]

Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Not to scale.	Depth[72] km	Component Layer	Density g/cm3
	0–60	Lithosphere[note 11]	—
	0–35	Crust[note 12]	2.2–2.9
	35–60	Upper mantle	3.4–4.4
	35–2890	Mantle	3.4–5.6
	100–700	Asthenosphere	—
	2890–5100	Outer core	9.9–12.2
	5100–6378	Inner core	12.8–13.1

Heat

Earth's internal heat comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion (about 20%) and heat produced through radioactive decay (80%).^[73] The major heat-producing isotopes in the Earth are potassium-40, uranium-238, uranium-235, and thorium-232.^[74] At the center of the planet, the temperature may be up to 7,000 K and the pressure could reach 360 GPa.^[75] Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists believe that early in Earth history, before isotopes with short half-lives had been depleted, Earth's heat production would have been much higher. This extra heat production, twice present-day at approximately 3 billion years ago,^[73] would have increased temperature gradients within the Earth, increasing the rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of igneous rocks such as komatiites that are not formed today.^[76]

Present-day major heat-producing isotopes^[77]

Isotope	Heat release W/kg isotope	Half-life years	Mean mantle concentration kg isotope/kg mantle	Heat release W/kg mantle
238U	9.46 × 10−5	4.47 × 109	30.8 × 10−9	2.91 × 10−12
235U	5.69 × 10−4	7.04 × 108	0.22 × 10−9	1.25 × 10−13
232Th	2.64 × 10−5	1.40 × 1010	124 × 10−9	3.27 × 10−12
40K	2.92 × 10−5	1.25 × 109	36.9 × 10−9	1.08 × 10−12

Total heat loss from the Earth is 4.2 × 10¹³ watts.^[78] A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by mantle plumes; a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce hotspots and flood basalts.^[79] More of the heat in the Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs in the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.^[78]

Tectonic plates

Earth's main plates^[80]

Plate name	Area 106 km2
African Plate[note 13]	78.0
Antarctic Plate	60.9
Indo-Australian Plate	47.2
Eurasian Plate	67.8
North American Plate	75.9
South American Plate	43.6
Pacific Plate	103.3

Main article: Plate tectonics

The mechanically rigid outer layer of the Earth, the lithosphere, is broken into pieces called tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move in relation to one another at one of three types of plate boundaries: Convergent boundaries, at which two plates come together, Divergent boundaries, at which two plates are pulled apart, and Transform boundaries, in which two plates slide past one another laterally. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation can occur along these plate boundaries.^[81] The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates,^[82] and their motion is strongly coupled with convection patterns inside the Earth's mantle.

As the tectonic plates migrate across the planet, the ocean floor is subducted under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes continually recycles the oceanic crust back into the mantle. Because of this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than 100 million years in age. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific, and has an estimated age of about 200 million years.^[83][84] By comparison, the oldest dated continental crust is 4030 million years old.^[85]

Other notable plates include the Indian Plate, the Arabian Plate, the Caribbean Plate, the Nazca Plate off the west coast of South America and the Scotia Plate in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between 50 and 55 million years ago. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the Cocos Plate advancing at a rate of 75 mm/yr^[86] and the Pacific Plate moving 52–69 mm/yr. At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of about 21 mm/yr.^[87]

Surface

Main articles: Landform and Extreme points of Earth

The Earth's terrain varies greatly from place to place. About 70.8%^[88] of the surface is covered by water, with much of the continental shelf below sea level. The submerged surface has mountainous features, including a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system, as well as undersea volcanoes,^[60] oceanic trenches, submarine canyons, oceanic plateaus and abyssal plains. The remaining 29.2% not covered by water consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other geomorphologies.

The planetary surface undergoes reshaping over geological time periods because of tectonics and erosion. The surface features built up or deformed through plate tectonics are subject to steady weathering from precipitation, thermal cycles, and chemical effects. Glaciation, coastal erosion, the build-up of coral reefs, and large meteorite impacts^[89] also act to reshape the landscape.

Present day Earth altimetry and bathymetry. Data from the National Geophysical Data Center's TerrainBase Digital Terrain Model.

The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks granite and andesite. Less common is basalt, a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors.^[90] Sedimentary rock is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes compacted together. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form only about 5% of the crust.^[91] The third form of rock material found on Earth is metamorphic rock, which is created from the transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or both. The most abundant silicate minerals on the Earth's surface include quartz, the feldspars, amphibole, mica, pyroxene and olivine.^[92] Common carbonate minerals include calcite (found in limestone), aragonite and dolomite.^[93]

The pedosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes. It exists at the interface of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Currently the total arable land is 13.31% of the land surface, with only 4.71% supporting permanent crops.^[10] Close to 40% of the Earth's land surface is presently used for cropland and pasture, or an estimated 1.3 × 10⁷ km² of cropland and 3.4 × 10⁷ km² of pastureland.^[94]

The elevation of the land surface of the Earth varies from the low point of −418 m at the Dead Sea, to a 2005-estimated maximum altitude of 8,848 m at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is 840 m.^[95]

Hydrosphere

Main article: Hydrosphere Elevation histogram of the surface of the Earth

The abundance of water on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "Blue Planet" from others in the Solar System. The Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of 2,000 m. The deepest underwater location is Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of −10,911.4 m.^{[note 14][96]}

The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35 × 10¹⁸ metric tons, or about 1/4400 of the total mass of the Earth. The oceans cover an area of 361.8 × 10⁶ km² with a mean depth of 3,682 m, resulting in an estimated volume of 1.332 × 10⁹ km³.^[97] If all the land on Earth were spread evenly, water would rise to an altitude of more than 2.7 km.^{[note 15]} About 97.5% of the water is saline, while the remaining 2.5% is fresh water. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is currently ice.^[98]

The average salinity of the Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (35 ‰).^[99] Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool, igneous rocks.^[100] The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.^[101] Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large heat reservoir.^[102] Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation.^[103]

Atmosphere

Main article: Atmosphere of Earth

The atmospheric pressure on the surface of the Earth averages 101.325 kPa, with a scale height of about 8.5 km.^[3] It is 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, with trace amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide and other gaseous molecules. The height of the troposphere varies with latitude, ranging between 8 km at the poles to 17 km at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.^[104]

Earth's biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere. Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved 2.7 billion years ago, forming the primarily nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere of today. This change enabled the proliferation of aerobic organisms as well as the formation of the ozone layer which blocks ultraviolet solar radiation, permitting life on land. Other atmospheric functions important to life on Earth include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small meteors to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature.^[105] This last phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be −18 °C and life would likely not exist.^[88]

Weather and climate

Main articles: Weather and Climate Satellite cloud cover image of Earth using NASA's Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer.

The Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first 11 km of the planet's surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower density air then rises, and is replaced by cooler, higher density air. The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of heat energy.^[106]

The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the trade winds in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°.^[107] Ocean currents are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the thermohaline circulation that distributes heat energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.^[108]

Source regions of global air masses

Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and settles to the surface as precipitation.^[106] Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This water cycle is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land, and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topological features and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region.^[109]

The Earth can be sub-divided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the tropical (or equatorial), subtropical, temperate and polar climates.^[110] Climate can also be classified based on the temperature and precipitation, with the climate regions characterized by fairly uniform air masses. The commonly used Köppen climate classification system (as modified by Wladimir Köppen's student Rudolph Geiger) has five broad groups (humid tropics, arid, humid middle latitudes, continental and cold polar), which are further divided into more specific subtypes.^[107]

Upper atmosphere

This view from orbit shows the full Moon partially obscured and deformed by the Earth's atmosphere. NASA image. See also: Outer space

Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.^[105] Each layer has a different lapse rate, defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the exosphere thins out into the magnetosphere, where the Earth's magnetic fields interact with the solar wind.^[111] An important part of the atmosphere for life on Earth is the ozone layer, a component of the stratosphere that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light. The Kármán line, defined as 100 km above the Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between atmosphere and space.^[112]

Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the Earth's atmosphere have their velocity increased to the point where they can escape from the planet's gravity. This results in a slow but steady leakage of the atmosphere into space. Because unfixed hydrogen has a low molecular weight, it can achieve escape velocity more readily and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gasses.^[113] The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the pushing of the Earth from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is believed to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere.^[114] Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the Earth's atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on the planet.^[115] In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.^[116]

Magnetic field

The Earth's magnetic field, which approximates a dipole Main article: Earth's magnetic field

The Earth's magnetic field is shaped roughly as a magnetic dipole, with the poles currently located proximate to the planet's geographic poles. According to dynamo theory, the field is generated within the molten outer core region where heat creates convection motions of conducting materials, generating electric currents. These in turn produce the Earth's magnetic field. The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This results in field reversals at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago.^[117][118]

The field forms the magnetosphere, which deflects particles in the solar wind. The sunward edge of the bow shock is located at about 13 times the radius of the Earth. The collision between the magnetic field and the solar wind forms the Van Allen radiation belts, a pair of concentric, torus-shaped regions of energetic charged particles. When the plasma enters the Earth's atmosphere at the magnetic poles, it forms the aurora.^[119]

Orbit and rotation

Rotation

Main article: Earth's rotation Earth's axial tilt (or obliquity) and its relation to the rotation axis and plane of orbit.

Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is 86,400 seconds of mean solar time. Each second is slightly longer than an SI second because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century because of tidal acceleration.^[120]

Earth's rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called its stellar day by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is 86164.098903691 seconds of mean solar time (UT1), or 23^h 56^m 4.098903691^s. ^{[2][note 16]} Earth's rotation period relative to the precessing or moving mean vernal equinox, misnamed its sidereal day, is 86164.09053083288 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23^h 56^m 4.09053083288^s).^[2] Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms.^[121] The length of the mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005^[122] and 1962–2005.^[123]

Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in the Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the celestial equator, this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or Moon every two minutes; from the planet's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same.^[124][125]

Orbit

Main article: Earth's orbit

Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 150 million kilometers every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one sidereal year. From Earth, this gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1°/day, or a Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours. Because of this motion, on average it takes 24 hours—a solar day—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the meridian. The orbital speed of the Earth averages about 30 km/s (108,000 km/h), which is fast enough to cover the planet's diameter (about 12,600 km) in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon (384,000 km) in four hours.^[3]

The Moon revolves with the Earth around a common barycenter every 27.32 days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common revolution around the Sun, the period of the synodic month, from new moon to new moon, is 29.53 days. Viewed from the celestial north pole, the motion of Earth, the Moon and their axial rotations are all counter-clockwise. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and the Earth, the Earth appears to revolve in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's axis is tilted some 23.5 degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane, and the Earth–Moon plane is tilted about 5 degrees against the Earth-Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between lunar eclipses and solar eclipses.^[3][126]

The Hill sphere, or gravitational sphere of influence, of the Earth is about 1.5 Gm (or 1,500,000 kilometers) in radius.^{[127][note 17]} This is maximum distance at which the Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit the Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.

Illustration of the Milky Way Galaxy, showing the location of the Sun

Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the Milky Way galaxy, orbiting about 28,000 light years from the center of the galaxy. It is currently about 20 light years above the galaxy's equatorial plane in the Orion spiral arm.^[128]

Axial tilt and seasons

Main article: Axial tilt

Because of the axial tilt of the Earth, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This results in seasonal change in climate, with summer in the northern hemisphere occurring when the North Pole is pointing toward the Sun, and winter taking place when the pole is pointed away. During the summer, the day lasts longer and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes generally cooler and the days shorter. Above the Arctic Circle, an extreme case is reached where there is no daylight at all for part of the year—a polar night. In the southern hemisphere the situation is exactly reversed, with the South Pole oriented opposite the direction of the North Pole.

Earth and Moon from Mars, imaged by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. From space, the Earth can be seen to go through phases similar to the phases of the Moon.

By astronomical convention, the four seasons are determined by the solstices—the point in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the equinoxes, when the direction of the tilt and the direction to the Sun are perpendicular. In the northern hemisphere, Winter Solstice occurs on about December 21, Summer Solstice is near June 21, Spring Equinox is around March 20 and Autumnal Equinox is about September 23. In the Southern hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the Summer and Winter Solstices exchanged and the Spring and Autumnal Equinox dates switched.^[129]

The angle of the Earth's tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. However, the tilt does undergo nutation; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6 years.^[130] The orientation (rather than the angle) of the Earth's axis also changes over time, precessing around in a complete circle over each 25,800 year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a tropical year. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and Moon on the Earth's equatorial bulge. From the perspective of the Earth, the poles also migrate a few meters across the surface. This polar motion has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed quasiperiodic motion. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the Chandler wobble. The rotational velocity of the Earth also varies in a phenomenon known as length of day variation.^[131]

In modern times, Earth's perihelion occurs around January 3, and the aphelion around July 4. However, these dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as Milankovitch cycles. The changing Earth-Sun distance results in an increase of about 6.9%^[132] in solar energy reaching the Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Since the southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that the Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the southern hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. However, this effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the southern hemisphere.^[133]

Moon

Characteristics

Diameter	3,474.8 km 2,159.2 mi
Mass	7.349 × 1022 kg 8.1 × 1019 (short) tons
Semi-major axis	384,400 km 238,700 mi
Orbital period	27 d 7 h 43.7 m

Main article: Moon

The Moon is a relatively large, terrestrial, planet-like satellite, with a diameter about one-quarter of the Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although Charon is larger relative to the dwarf planet Pluto. The natural satellites orbiting other planets are called "moons" after Earth's Moon.

The gravitational attraction between the Earth and Moon causes tides on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its tidal locking: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit the Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the lunar phases; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the solar terminator.

Because of their tidal interaction, the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately 38 mm a year. Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23 µs a year—add up to significant changes.^[134] During the Devonian period, for example, (approximately 410 million years ago) there were 400 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.8 hours.^[135]

Details of the Earth-Moon system. Besides the radius of each object, the radius to the Earth-Moon barycenter is shown. Photos from NASA. Data from NASA. The Moon's axis is located by Cassini's third law.

The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. Paleontological evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon.^[136] Some theorists believe that without this stabilization against the torques applied by the Sun and planets to the Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting chaotic changes over millions of years, as appears to be the case for Mars.^[137] If Earth's axis of rotation were to approach the plane of the ecliptic, extremely severe weather could result from the resulting extreme seasonal differences. One pole would be pointed directly toward the Sun during summer and directly away during winter. Planetary scientists who have studied the effect claim that this might kill all large animal and higher plant life.^[138] However, this is a controversial subject, and further studies of Mars—whose rotation period and axial tilt are similar to those of Earth, but which lacks a large moon or liquid core—may settle the matter.

Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have very nearly the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun. The angular size (or solid angle) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant.^[125] This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth.

The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the giant impact theory, states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements, and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of the Earth's crust.^[139]

Earth has at least two co-orbital asteroids, 3753 Cruithne and 2002 AA₂₉.^[140]

A scale representation of the relative sizes of, and average distance between, Earth and Moon

Habitability

See also: Planetary habitability A range of theoretical habitable zones with stars of different mass (our Solar System at center). Scale is logarithmic, and planet sizes are not to scale.

A planet that can sustain life is termed habitable, even if life did not originate there. The Earth provides the (currently understood) requisite conditions of liquid water, an environment where complex organic molecules can assemble, and sufficient energy to sustain metabolism.^[141] The distance of the Earth from the Sun, as well as its orbital eccentricity, rate of rotation, axial tilt, geological history, sustaining atmosphere and protective magnetic field all contribute to the conditions believed necessary to originate and sustain life on this planet.^[142]

Biosphere

Main article: Biosphere

The planet's life forms are sometimes said to form a "biosphere". This biosphere is generally believed to have begun evolving about 3.5 billion years ago. Earth is the only place in the universe where life is known to exist. Some scientists believe that Earth-like biospheres might be rare.^[143]

The biosphere is divided into a number of biomes, inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals. On land, biomes are separated primarily by differences in latitude, height above sea level and humidity. Terrestrial biomes lying within the Arctic or Antarctic Circles, at high altitudes or in extremely arid areas are relatively barren of plant and animal life; species diversity reaches a peak in humid lowlands at equatorial latitudes.^[144]

Natural resources and land use

Main article: Natural resource

The Earth provides resources that are exploitable by humans for useful purposes. Some of these are non-renewable resources, such as mineral fuels, that are difficult to replenish on a short time scale.

Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from the Earth's crust, consisting of coal, petroleum, natural gas and methane clathrate. These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production. Mineral ore bodies have also been formed in Earth's crust through a process of Ore genesis, resulting from actions of erosion and plate tectonics.^[145] These bodies form concentrated sources for many metals and other useful elements.

The Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including (but far from limited to) food, wood, pharmaceuticals, oxygen, and the recycling of many organic wastes. The land-based ecosystem depends upon topsoil and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.^[146] Humans also live on the land by using building materials to construct shelters. In 1993, human use of land is approximately:

Land use	Arable land	Permanent crops	Permanent pastures	Forests and woodland	Urban areas	Other
Percentage	13.13%[10]	4.71%[10]	26%	32%	1.5%	30%

The estimated amount of irrigated land in 1993 was 2,481,250 km².^[10]

Natural and environmental hazards

Large areas are subject to extreme weather such as tropical cyclones, hurricanes, or typhoons that dominate life in those areas. Many places are subject to earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes, sinkholes, blizzards, floods, droughts, and other calamities and disasters.

Many localized areas are subject to human-made pollution of the air and water, acid rain and toxic substances, loss of vegetation (overgrazing, deforestation, desertification), loss of wildlife, species extinction, soil degradation, soil depletion, erosion, and introduction of invasive species.

According to the United Nations, a scientific consensus exists linking human activities to global warming due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions. This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a global rise in average sea levels.^[147]

Human geography

Main article: Human geography See also: World

Cartography, the study and practice of map making, and vicariously geography, have historically been the disciplines devoted to depicting the Earth. Surveying, the determination of locations and distances, and to a lesser extent navigation, the determination of position and direction, have developed alongside cartography and geography, providing and suitably quantifying the requisite information.

Earth has approximately 6,803,000,000 human inhabitants as of December 12, 2009.^[148] Projections indicate that the world's human population will reach seven billion in 2013 and 9.2 billion in 2050.^[149] Most of the growth is expected to take place in developing nations. Human population density varies widely around the world, but a majority live in Asia. By 2020, 60% of the world's population is expected to be living in urban, rather than rural, areas.^[150]

It is estimated that only one-eighth of the surface of the Earth is suitable for humans to live on—three-quarters is covered by oceans, and half of the land area is either desert (14%),^[151] high mountains (27%),^[152] or other less suitable terrain. The northernmost permanent settlement in the world is Alert, on Ellesmere Island in Nunavut, Canada.^[153] (82°28′N) The southernmost is the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, in Antarctica, almost exactly at the South Pole. (90°S)

The Earth at night, a composite of DMSP/OLS ground illumination data on a simulated night-time image of the world. This image is not photographic and many features are brighter than they would appear to a direct observer.

Independent sovereign nations claim the planet's entire land surface, except for some parts of Antarctica and the odd unclaimed area of Bir Tawil between Egypt and Sudan. As of 2007 there are 201 sovereign states, including the 192 United Nations member states. In addition, there are 59 dependent territories, and a number of autonomous areas, territories under dispute and other entities.^[10] Historically, Earth has never had a sovereign government with authority over the entire globe, although a number of nation-states have striven for world domination and failed.^[154]

The United Nations is a worldwide intergovernmental organization that was created with the goal of intervening in the disputes between nations, thereby avoiding armed conflict.^[155] It is not, however, a world government. The U.N. serves primarily as a forum for international diplomacy and international law. When the consensus of the membership permits, it provides a mechanism for armed intervention.^[156]

The first human to orbit the Earth was Yuri Gagarin on April 12, 1961.^[157] In total, about 400 people visited outer space and reached Earth orbit as of 2004, and, of these, twelve have walked on the Moon.^{[158][159][160]} Normally the only humans in space are those on the International Space Station. The station's crew, currently six people, is usually replaced every six months.^[161] The furthest humans have travelled from Earth is 400,171 km, achieved during the 1970 Apollo 13 mission.^[162]

Cultural viewpoint

The first photograph ever taken by astronauts of an "Earthrise", from Apollo 8 Main article: Earth in culture

The name "Earth" derives from the Anglo-Saxon word erda, which means ground or soil, and is related to the German word erde. It became eorthe later, and then erthe in Middle English.^[163] The standard astronomical symbol of the Earth consists of a cross circumscribed by a circle.^[164]

Unlike the rest of the planets in the Solar System, mankind did not perceive the Earth as a planet until the 16th century.^[165] Earth has often been personified as a deity, in particular a goddess. In many cultures the mother goddess is also portrayed as a fertility deity. Creation myths in many religions recall a story involving the creation of the Earth by a supernatural deity or deities. A variety of religious groups, often associated with fundamentalist branches of Protestantism^[166] or Islam,^[167] assert that their interpretations of these creation myths in sacred texts are literal truth and should be considered alongside or replace conventional scientific accounts of the formation of the Earth and the origin and development of life.^[168] Such assertions are opposed by the scientific community^[169][170] and by other religious groups.^{[171][172][173]} A prominent example is the creation-evolution controversy.

In the past there were varying levels of belief in a flat Earth,^[174] but this was displaced by the concept of a spherical Earth due to observation and circumnavigation.^[175] The human perspective regarding the Earth has changed following the advent of spaceflight, and the biosphere is now widely viewed from a globally integrated perspective.^[176][177] This is reflected in a growing environmental movement that is concerned about humankind's effects on the planet.^[178]

See also

	Solar System portal
	Earth sciences portal

	Book:Solar System
Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.

• Earth science
  • Outline of earth science
  • Index of earth science articles
• Geodesy
  • History of geodesy
• Geography
  • List of basic geography topics
  • Index of geography articles
• Geology
  • Outline of geology
  • Index of geology articles

Notes

1. ^ All astronomical quantities vary, both secularly and periodically. The quantities given are the values at the instant J2000.0 of the secular variation, ignoring all periodic variations.
2. ^ ^{a b} aphelion = a × (1 + e); perihelion = a × (1 - e), where a is the semi-major axis and e is the eccentricity.
3. ^ The reference lists the longitude of the ascending node as -11.26064°, which is equivalent to 348.73936° by the fact that any angle is equal to itself plus 360°.
4. ^ The reference lists the longitude of perihelion, which is the sum of the longitude of the ascending node and the argument of perihelion. That is, 114.20783° + (-11.26064°) = 102.94719°.
5. ^ ^{a b} Due to natural fluctuations, ambiguities surrounding ice shelves, and mapping conventions for vertical datums, exact values for land and ocean coverage are not meaningful. Based on data from the Vector Map and Global Landcover datasets, extreme values for coverage of lakes and streams are 0.6% and 1.0% of the earth's surface. The ice shields of Antarctica and Greenland are counted as land, even though much of the rock which supports them lies below sea level.
6. ^ Blue Planet is used as the title of several films Blue Planet and The Blue Planet, in the Life issue The Incredible Year '68 featuring the Earthrise photo with lines from poet James Dickey Behold/The blue planet steeped in its dream/Of reality, and in the title of the European Space Agency bulletin report Exploring the water cycle of the 'Blue Planet'
7. ^ By International Astronomical Union convention, the term terra is used only for naming extensive land masses on celestial bodies other than the Earth. Cf. Blue, Jennifer (2007-07-05). "Descriptor Terms (Feature Types)". Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. USGS. http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/jsp/append5.jsp. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
8. ^ Other planets in the Solar System are either too hot or too cold to support liquid water. However, it is confirmed to have existed on the surface of Mars in the past, and may still appear today. See:
   • Malik, Tariq (2007-03-02). "Rover reveals Mars was once wet enough for life". Space.com (via MSNBC). http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4202901/. Retrieved 2007-08-28.
   • Staff (2005-11-07). "Simulations Show Liquid Water Could Exist on Mars". Daily Headlines (University of Arkansas). http://dailyheadlines.uark.edu/5717.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-08.
9. ^ As of 2007, water vapor has been detected in the atmosphere of only one extrasolar planet, and it is a gas giant. See: Tinetti, G.; Vidal-Madjar, A.; Liang, M.C.; Beaulieu, J. P.; Yung, Y.; Carey, S.; Barber, R. J.; Tennyson, J.; Ribas, I (July 2007). "Water vapour in the atmosphere of a transiting extrasolar planet". Nature 448 (7150): 169–171. doi:10.1038/nature06002. PMID 17625559. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v448/n7150/abs/nature06002.html.
10. ^ The number of solar days is one less than the number of sidereal days because the orbital motion of the Earth about the Sun results in one additional revolution of the planet about its axis.
11. ^ Locally varies between 5 and 200 km.
12. ^ Locally varies between 5 and 70 km.
13. ^ Including the Somali Plate, which is currently in the process of formation out of the African Plate. See: Chorowicz, Jean (October 2005). "The East African rift system". Journal of African Earth Sciences 43 (1–3): 379–410. doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019.
14. ^ This is the measurement taken by the vessel Kaikō in March 1995 and is believed to be the most accurate measurement to date. See the Challenger Deep article for more details.
15. ^ The total surface area of the Earth is 5.1 × 10⁸ km². To first approximation, the average depth would be the ratio of the two, or 2.7 km.
16. ^ Aoki, the ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of mean solar time".—Aoki, S. (1982). "The new definition of universal time". Astronomy and Astrophysics 105 (2): 359–361. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982A&A...105..359A. Retrieved 2008-09-23.
17. ^ For the Earth, the Hill radius is

    ,

    where m is the mass of the Earth, a is an Astronomical Unit, and M is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in A.U. is about: .

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Further reading

• Comins, Neil F. (2001). Discovering the Essential Universe (Second ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-5804-0. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003deu..book.....C. Retrieved 2007-03-17.

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